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The Journey to Delft: Origins and Influences
The story of Delftware doesn’t begin in Delft itself, but rather with broader European ceramic traditions and global trade. For centuries, European potters worked primarily with earthenware, which remained porous even after firing. Glazing techniques existed, but achieving a brilliant white surface, like that seen on expensive imported Chinese porcelain, was a significant challenge. Italian potters, from the Renaissance onwards, developed maiolica – earthenware coated with an opaque white tin-glaze, providing a canvas for vibrant painted decoration. This technique spread northwards, reaching the Low Countries, particularly Antwerp, by the early 16th century. However, the real catalyst for Delftware’s rise was the explosive growth of international trade in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, spearheaded by the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The VOC began importing vast quantities of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain, especially during the Wanli period (1573-1620). This porcelain, with its delicate forms, brilliant white body, and intricate cobalt blue designs, captivated European consumers. It was a luxury item, symbolising wealth and sophistication. Initially, Dutch potters, particularly those who had migrated from Antwerp to cities like Haarlem and Delft following the Spanish siege of Antwerp in 1585, tried to imitate the popular Italian maiolica. But the allure of Chinese porcelain was undeniable. A disruption in the Chinese porcelain trade occurred around the mid-17th century due to civil unrest in China following the fall of the Ming Dynasty. This created a vacuum in the European market. Dutch potters, already skilled in tin-glazing techniques learned from Italian traditions, saw a golden opportunity. They began to adapt their methods not just to mimic the appearance of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain, but to create their own distinct style using the materials available to them: earthenware clay coated in a white tin glaze, decorated with cobalt blue pigment.Delft’s Golden Age of Pottery
The city of Delft became the epicentre of this new ceramic production, largely eclipsing other Dutch pottery centres by the mid-17th century. Several factors contributed to this dominance. Firstly, the decline of Delft’s brewing industry freed up canalside premises and a workforce adaptable to the pottery trade. Secondly, Delft had excellent access via waterways to the necessary raw materials – local clays, tin oxide from Cornwall, and cobalt ore (often sourced from Saxony) for the blue pigment. Thirdly, its proximity to major trade hubs like Rotterdam and The Hague facilitated distribution. During its peak, roughly from 1640 to 1740, Delft boasted dozens of potteries, known as ‘plateelbakkerijen’. Names like De Grieksche A (The Greek A), De Metaale Pot (The Metal Pot), and De Porceleyne Fles (The Porcelain Bottle – still operating today) became synonymous with high-quality tin-glazed earthenware. These workshops employed skilled artisans: throwers to shape the clay, glaze mixers, painters (‘plateelschilders’) who meticulously applied the designs, and kiln masters who oversaw the crucial firing processes. The demand was enormous, both domestically and for export across Europe. Delftware filled homes, decorating walls with tiles, gracing tables with plates and chargers, and adorning rooms with ornate vases and figurines.Understanding the Terminology: It’s important to remember that Delftware is technically earthenware, not porcelain. While it successfully imitated the visual appeal of Chinese porcelain with its white background and blue decoration, it lacked porcelain’s hardness, translucency, and resonance. The opaque white surface was achieved using a lead glaze made white and opaque by adding tin oxide.
Crafting Delftware: The Tin-Glaze Technique
The production of Delftware was a multi-stage process requiring considerable skill. It began with preparing the clay, typically a local marl clay, which was washed, purified, and kneaded.Shaping and Initial Firing
Objects were formed either by throwing on a potter’s wheel (for circular items like plates and bowls) or by pressing clay into plaster molds (for more complex shapes like figurines, tiles, or elaborate vases). After drying to a ‘leather-hard’ state, the pieces underwent a first firing at a relatively high temperature (around 1000°C). This initial firing, known as the biscuit firing (‘biscuitstook’), transformed the clay into hard, porous earthenware.Glazing and Decoration
The biscuit-fired pieces were then dipped into a bath of liquid tin glaze. This glaze was a mixture of lead compounds, sand, and, crucially, tin oxide (‘tin-as’). The tin oxide rendered the glaze opaque white upon firing, concealing the yellowish or reddish color of the fired earthenware body and providing the desired white canvas. Once the glaze coating dried slightly, the decoration was applied. This was the most demanding stage, requiring a steady hand and artistic skill. The primary pigment used was cobalt oxide, mixed with water and applied with fine brushes. Cobalt was chosen because it could withstand the high temperatures of the second firing without burning away, producing a range of blue tones depending on its concentration and application. Painting on the absorbent, unfired tin glaze was challenging. Mistakes were difficult, if not impossible, to correct. The painters, often specialists, first outlined the design (‘trekken’) using a darker blue or black mixture, then filled in the areas with washes of blue (‘schilderen’). This technique allowed for both sharp lines and shaded areas, contributing to the vibrancy of the designs.The Glost Firing
Finally, the decorated and glazed pieces underwent a second firing, the glost firing (‘glazuurstook’), at a slightly lower temperature than the biscuit firing (around 950°C). This firing fused the glaze to the earthenware body, melted the glaze constituents into a smooth, glassy layer, and developed the characteristic brilliant blue of the cobalt decoration. Sometimes, a clear lead glaze (‘kwaart’) was applied over the painted decoration before the second firing to enhance the brilliance and depth of the blue and provide a smoother finish, especially on higher-quality pieces.From Chinoiserie to Dutch Scenes: Iconic Designs
Early Delftware designs heavily borrowed from the imported Chinese porcelain that inspired its creation. Motifs popular during the late Ming and Transitional periods were frequently copied or adapted:- Kraak-style panels: Featuring radiating panels around a central scene, often depicting birds, flowers, or landscapes.
- Chinese landscapes: With characteristic mountains, pagodas, rivers, and figures in traditional dress.
- Floral motifs: Peonies, chrysanthemums, and lotus flowers arranged in various compositions.
- Figurative scenes: Depicting courtly life, scholars, or mythological figures from Chinese lore.
- Dutch Landscapes: Windmills turning lazily beside canals, skaters gliding on frozen rivers, flat polders stretching to the horizon.
- Seascapes: Proud Dutch merchant ships sailing on choppy waters, fishing boats returning to harbour.
- Biblical Scenes: Particularly popular on tiles used to decorate fireplaces and walls, illustrating stories from the Old and New Testaments.
- Genre Scenes: Depictions of daily life, children playing games, soldiers, domestic interiors.
- Floral Arrangements: Often incorporating European flowers like tulips, roses, and carnations, sometimes arranged in elaborate bouquets inspired by Dutch still-life painting.
Identifying and Appreciating Delftware
Authentic antique Delftware can be identified by several characteristics. The body is earthenware, typically buff or yellowish in colour where chipped, covered by the opaque white tin glaze. The glaze often exhibits tiny pinholes or crazing (fine cracks). The blue decoration was applied by hand directly onto the unfired glaze. Many pieces, particularly from the major potteries, bear factory marks on the base, though unmarked pieces are also common, and marks can sometimes be misleading or forged. Due to the nature of earthenware, antique Delftware is often chipped or damaged along the edges, revealing the underlying clay body.Beware of Imitations: Delftware’s popularity led to many imitations throughout history and continues today. English potteries produced similar tin-glazed wares (often called English delftware). Later, transfer-printed earthenware, while visually similar in blue and white, used a different production technique. Always examine pieces carefully for signs of hand-painting and the characteristic tin-glaze properties.The rise of European hard-paste porcelain manufacturing (like Meissen in Germany) and the development of more durable and refined English creamware (like Wedgwood) in the mid-18th century presented stiff competition. These newer ceramic types were often preferred for tableware, and the Delftware industry experienced a significant decline. Many potteries closed, and by the early 19th century, only a handful remained.
