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The Birth of Professional Theatre in Italy
Emerging in the mid-1500s, Commedia dell’arte marked a significant shift. For perhaps the first time in post-Classical Europe, acting became a viable profession. Troupes, often family-based, travelled across Italy and eventually Europe, setting up makeshift stages in public squares or performing in courtly settings. They relied on scenarios, essentially outlines of plots, leaving the specific dialogue and much of the physical action (the lazzi) to be improvised by the skilled performers. This improvisational core meant that performances were dynamic, responsive to the audience, and incredibly alive. These troupes developed a repertoire of scenarios often involving themes of love, intrigue, misunderstandings, and the eternal struggle between the wealthy old guard and the clever servants or young lovers. The social commentary, though couched in comedy, was often sharp, reflecting the rigid class structures and regional stereotypes of the time.A Cast of Archetypes: The Stock Characters
The heart and soul of Commedia dell’arte lay in its stock characters. These weren’t fully rounded individuals in the modern sense but established archetypes, immediately identifiable by their masks, costumes, dialects, and behaviours. They broadly fell into several categories:The Vecchi (The Old Men)
Often representing the obstructing force in the plot, the Vecchi were figures of authority, wealth, and often, foolishness. The most prominent were:- Pantalone: Typically a wealthy, miserly Venetian merchant. His mask featured a long, hooked nose, and his costume often included red breeches or tights and a black cloak. He was lecherous, greedy, easily angered, and constantly concerned with his money or his position, often making a fool of himself pursuing young women or trying to control his children.
- Il Dottore: Hailing from Bologna, Il Dottore (The Doctor) was a parody of the learned academic or physician. He was pompous, verbose, and spouted nonsensical Latin phrases and inaccurate knowledge. His mask covered only his forehead and nose, often dark or purple, emphasizing his flushed cheeks (supposedly from drink). He was usually Pantalone’s friend or rival.
- Il Capitano: A caricature of the bragging soldier. He boasted of incredible feats of bravery and conquest but was, in reality, a coward who would flee at the first sign of actual danger. His mask often had an exaggeratedly long nose and fierce moustache. His origin varied, often being Spanish during periods of Spanish influence or occupation in Italy, adding another layer of social satire.
The Zanni (The Servants)
The Zanni were the engine of the comedy, the drivers of intrigue, and often the most audience-sympathetic characters. They were servants, usually from the Bergamo region, known for their rustic simplicity or cunning wit. There were typically at least two Zanni in a scenario:- Arlecchino (Harlequin): Perhaps the most famous Zanni, Arlecchino evolved from a simple-minded, perpetually hungry servant into a more acrobatic, witty, and mischievous figure. His costume, originally patched rags, developed into the iconic diamond pattern. His mask was black with small eyeholes and often a bump or carbuncle on the forehead. He was known for his incredible agility and use of a wooden slapstick (batocchio), the origin of “slapstick comedy.”
- Brighella: Often Arlecchino’s smarter, more cynical, and manipulative counterpart. Brighella was a master schemer, innkeeper, or shop owner, always looking out for himself. His mask was typically greenish with a hooked nose and cunning eyes.
- Pulcinella: A Neapolitan character, hunchbacked, with a potbelly and a distinctive black mask featuring a large, beaked nose. Pulcinella was complex – sometimes stupid, sometimes clever, crude, witty, and melancholic. He is the ancestor of the English Punch character of Punch and Judy fame.
- Colombina (Columbine): A female servant, often Arlecchino’s love interest. She was usually witty, pragmatic, and flirtatious. Unusually for the lower-class characters, Colombina often did not wear a mask, or wore only a small eye mask, allowing the actress’s expressions to be seen. She navigated the chaos around her with intelligence and charm.
The Innamorati (The Lovers)
Representing the youthful desire that often drove the plot, the Innamorati (The Lovers) were typically the children of the Vecchi (usually Pantalone or Il Dottore). They were deeply in love with each other but faced obstacles, usually put up by their parents or arising from misunderstandings. They were aristocratic, fashionable, and spoke in high-flown, poetic Tuscan Italian. Crucially, the Innamorati did not wear masks, allowing their expressive faces to convey the pangs and ecstasies of young love. They were often rather helpless, relying on the Zanni to solve their problems.Commedia dell’arte troupes typically consisted of ten to twelve actors. Each actor specialized in a specific stock character, often playing that same role for their entire career. This deep familiarity allowed for incredible improvisational chemistry and mastery of the character’s physical and vocal traits. The structure often included two pairs of lovers, two Vecchi, and several Zanni.
Masks: More Than Disguise
The masks of Commedia dell’arte were fundamental. They were not merely disguises but embodiments of the character’s core essence and social type. Made primarily of leather, they covered part or all of the face, exaggerating key features – Pantalone’s hook nose signifying greed, Il Dottore’s bulbous nose suggesting indulgence, Arlecchino’s low brow indicating peasant origins. The mask instantly communicated the character’s personality and limitations to the audience, freeing the actor to focus on physicality and vocal expression. Wearing the mask was said to transform the actor, allowing the character’s spirit to take over. It demanded a heightened physical presence, as subtle facial expressions were obscured.Lazzi and the Art of Physical Comedy
Physical comedy was paramount. Commedia relied heavily on lazzi – well-rehearsed, comic routines or gags inserted into the performance, often unrelated to the main plot but showcasing the actor’s skill. Lazzi could be verbal jokes, acrobatics, mime sequences, chases, mock fights, or absurd situations. Examples include the ‘Lazzo of the Fly’ (an actor trying desperately to swat an imaginary fly), the ‘Lazzo of Unspilled Wine’ (carrying a full glass through chaotic action without spilling it), or complex acrobatic feats performed by Arlecchino. This emphasis on physicality, timing, and exaggerated movement created a universally understandable form of humour, transcending language barriers as troupes travelled Europe. The slapstick, used by Arlecchino to create loud whacking sounds in mock beatings, gave its name to an entire genre of physical comedy.While celebrated for its humour, Commedia dell’arte often employed crude jokes, sexual innuendo, and satire that could be quite pointed. The physical comedy, involving falls, beatings, and acrobatics, was demanding and could be dangerous for the performers. Understanding its historical context is key to appreciating its sometimes rough-edged nature.
